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The assessment of malondialdehyde (MDA), total oxidant status (TOS), catalase (CAT) activity, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in 48 individuals revealed significantly higher CAT activity in COVID-19 cases compared to controls, with no significant differences between ICU and non-ICU groups [146]

Astaxanthin plays several key roles in redox reactions and energy balance that may protect against neurodegeneration: Antioxidant & membrane protection: Astaxanthin quenches reactive oxygen species and by embedding across lipid bilayers, protects mitochondrial and cellular membranes This oxidative support has been demonstrated in human studies with improvement in oxidative biomarkers (MDA, isoprostanes) Neurotrophic signaling: Brain-derived neurotrophic growth factor (BDNF) is important for cognitive support

GWAS were conducted for each ancestry group using a logistic mixed model, adjusting for age, sex, and the top 11 principal components

These limitations include the necessity for specialized equipment and the possibility of inducing skin irritation [12]

Oxidative stress develops when reactive oxygen species exceed antioxidant and repair capacity

This dual action accelerates detoxification and improves liver function